MEASURING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION: A REVIEW OF SCALES ACROSS LEARNING MODALITIES
Main Article Content
Abstract
This review synthesizes 29 studies from Scopus, ProQuest, and Google Scholar to examine the development and validation of student engagement (SE) scales in higher education across three learning modalities. Employing a structured search with keywords such as “student engagement” and “development,” the study identifies a diverse range of SE constructs, including cognitive, behavioral, emotional, social, and agentic dimensions. Analysis reveals variability in item counts (9-100 items, with an exception of three items) and factor structures (3-9 factors, with an exception of 1 factor), with original scales (e.g., USEI, OSE) providing foundational frameworks and adapted versions (e.g., I-HESES, A-USEI) tailoring these to cultural or modal contexts. Despite robust psychometric properties, limitations include self-report bias and limited cross-cultural invariance, suggesting a need for more comprehensive models and longitudinal validation to enhance SE measurement.
Keywords
blended, higher education, student engagement, scales to measure engagement
Article Details
References
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Assefa, Y., Fetene, G. T., & Wolle, G. S. (2025). Adaptation and validation of the University Student Engagement Scale (USES) in the Ethiopian higher education context. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-05-2024-0215
Astin, A. W. (1999). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Development, 40(5), 518-529.
Bae, Y., Han, S., & Zych, I. (2019). Academic engagement and learning outcomes of the student experience in the research university: Construct validation of the instrument. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 19(3), 49-64. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2019.3.004
Coates, H. (2010). Development of the Australasian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE). Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education and Educational Planning, 60(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9281-2
Dixson, M. D. (2010). Creating effective student engagement in online courses: What do students find engaging? Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10(2), 1-13. https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/josotl/article/view/1744
Dixson, M. D. (2015). Measuring student engagement in the online course: The Online Student Engagement Scale (OSE). Online Learning Journal, 19(4). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v19i4.561
Esposito, G., Marôco, J., Passeggia, R., Pepicelli, G., & Freda, M. F. (2022). The Italian validation of the university student engagement inventory. European Journal of Higher Education, 12(1), 35-55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/21568235.2021.1875018
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59-109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059
Gonzalez Donoso, A., Jara-Rosales, S., Padilla-Meza, J., & Godoy-Guzmán, C. (2023). Scale to measure medical, nursing and midwifery students’ engagement in an e-learning histology course. International Journal of Morphology, 41(2), 600-606. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-95022023000200600
Gunuc, S., & Kuzu, A. (2015). Student engagement scale: Development, reliability and validity. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 40(4), 587-610. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2014.938019
Gupta, S., & Nagpal, R. (2021). University student engagement scale: Development and validation in Indian context. MIER Journal of Educational Studies Trends and Practices, 223-235. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.52634/mier/2021/v11/i2/1903
Gusy, B., Lesener, T., & Wolter, C. (2019). Measuring well-being with the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale – Student Form: validation of a 9- and a 3-item measure of student engagement. European Journal of Health Psychology, 26(2), 31-38. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000027
Heilporn, G., Raynault, A., & Frenette, É. (2024). Student engagement in a higher education course: A multidimensional scale for different course modalities. Social Sciences and Humanities Open, 9, Article 100794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100794
Imran, I., Khan, R. A., & Aslam, K. (2023). The development and validation of student engagement questionnaire. Proceedings, 37(4), 26-30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.47489/szmc.v37i4.389
Jaafar, F. M. D., Hashim, R. A., & Ariffin, T. F. T. (2012). Malaysian university student learning involvement scale (MUSLIS): Validation of a student engagement mode. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 9, 15-30. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84874127148&partnerID=40&md5=d2e6a4e0c6217b360ce56be3d1a47632
Kim, S. Y., Westine, C., Wu, T., & Maher, D. (2024). Validation of the Higher Education Student Engagement Scale in use for program evaluation. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory and Practice, 26(3), 769-793. https://doi.org/10.1177/15210251221120908
Kuh, G. D. (2009). The National Survey of Student Engagement: Conceptual and empirical Foundations. New Directions for Institutional Research (141), 5-20. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.283
Laranjeira, M., & Teixeira, M. O. (2025). Relationships between engagement, achievement and well-being: Validation of the engagement in higher education scale. Studies in Higher Education, 50(4), 756-770. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2354903
Li, S., Kwok, S. W. H., Siu, S. C. N., Chung, J. Y. S., Lam, H. C. Y., Tsang, E. Y. M., Li, K. C., Yeung, J. W. Y., & Lam, S. C. (2023). Development of a generic student engagement scale in higher education: An application on healthcare students. Nursing Open, 10(3), 1545-1555. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.1405
Marcionetti, J., & Zammitti, A. (2024). Italian Higher Education Student Engagement Scale (I-HESES): Initial validation and psychometric evidence. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 37(3), 470-494. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2023.2241031
Maroco, J., Maroco, A. L., Campos, J. A. D. B., & Fredricks, J. A. (2016). University student’s engagement: Development of the University Student Engagement Inventory (USEI). Psicologia: Reflexao e Critica, 29, 21.
Reeve, J., & Tseng, C. M. (2011). Agency as a fourth aspect of students' engagement during learning activities. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 257-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.05.002
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326
Sharif-Nia, H., Marôco, J., She, L., Narula, S., Ma, L., Kaveh, O., Rahmatpour, P., & Ghahrani, N. (2024). University Student Engagement Inventory: Validation in the Indian online learning context. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 57(4), 351-363. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2023.2301287
Siddiqi, A. F., Shabbir, M. S., Abbas, M., Mahmood, A., & Salman, R. (2022). Developing and testing student engagement scale for higher education students. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 14(1), 424-439. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-11-2020-0388
Sulla, F., Harrad, R., Tontodimamma, A., Limone, P., & Aquino, A. (2023). Italian validation of the Online Student Engagement Scale (OSE) in higher education. Behavioral Sciences, 13(4), Article 324. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13040324
Tadesse, T., & Gillies, R. M. (2017). Testing robustness, model fit, and measurement invariance of the Student Engagement Scale in an African university context. Australian Journal of Career Development, 26(3), 92-102. https://doi.org/10.1177/1038416217724172
Tannoubi, A., Quansah, F., Hagan, J. E., Srem-Sai, M., Bonsaksen, T., Chalghaf, N., Boussayala, G., Azaiez, C., Snani, H., & Azaiez, F. (2023). Adaptation and validation of the Arabic version of the university student engagement inventory (A-USEI) among sport and physical education students. Psych, 5(2), 320-335. https://www.mdpi.com/2624-8611/5/2/22
Tatha, O., Shimazu, A., Watanabe, K., Kawakami, N., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2024). Measuring work engagement in Thailand: Development and validation testing of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-Thai version (UWES-TH). Industrial Health, 62(3), 182-194. https://doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.2023-0017
Xu, B., Stephens, J. M., & Lee, K. (2024). Assessing student engagement in collaborative learning: development and validation of new measure in China. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 33(2), 395-405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-023-00737-x
Zhoc, K. C. H., Webster, B. J., King, R. B., Li, J. C. H., & Chung, T. S. H. (2019). Higher Education Student Engagement Scale (HESES): Development and psychometric evidence. Research in Higher Education, 60(2), 219-244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9510-6
Zilvinskis, J., Masseria, A. A., & Pike, G. R. (2017). Student engagement and student learning: Examining the convergent and discriminant validity of the revised national survey of student engagement. Research in Higher Education, 58(8), 880-903. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-017-9450-6
Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., Kim, D., & Reschly, A. L. (2006). Measuring cognitive and psychological engagement: Validation of the Student Engagement Instrument. Journal of School Psychology, 44(5), 427-445. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2006.04.002
Assefa, Y., Fetene, G. T., & Wolle, G. S. (2025). Adaptation and validation of the University Student Engagement Scale (USES) in the Ethiopian higher education context. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-05-2024-0215
Astin, A. W. (1999). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Development, 40(5), 518-529.
Bae, Y., Han, S., & Zych, I. (2019). Academic engagement and learning outcomes of the student experience in the research university: Construct validation of the instrument. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 19(3), 49-64. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2019.3.004
Coates, H. (2010). Development of the Australasian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE). Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education and Educational Planning, 60(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9281-2
Dixson, M. D. (2010). Creating effective student engagement in online courses: What do students find engaging? Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10(2), 1-13. https://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/josotl/article/view/1744
Dixson, M. D. (2015). Measuring student engagement in the online course: The Online Student Engagement Scale (OSE). Online Learning Journal, 19(4). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v19i4.561
Esposito, G., Marôco, J., Passeggia, R., Pepicelli, G., & Freda, M. F. (2022). The Italian validation of the university student engagement inventory. European Journal of Higher Education, 12(1), 35-55. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/21568235.2021.1875018
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59-109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059
Gonzalez Donoso, A., Jara-Rosales, S., Padilla-Meza, J., & Godoy-Guzmán, C. (2023). Scale to measure medical, nursing and midwifery students’ engagement in an e-learning histology course. International Journal of Morphology, 41(2), 600-606. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-95022023000200600
Gunuc, S., & Kuzu, A. (2015). Student engagement scale: Development, reliability and validity. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 40(4), 587-610. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2014.938019
Gupta, S., & Nagpal, R. (2021). University student engagement scale: Development and validation in Indian context. MIER Journal of Educational Studies Trends and Practices, 223-235. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.52634/mier/2021/v11/i2/1903
Gusy, B., Lesener, T., & Wolter, C. (2019). Measuring well-being with the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale – Student Form: validation of a 9- and a 3-item measure of student engagement. European Journal of Health Psychology, 26(2), 31-38. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000027
Heilporn, G., Raynault, A., & Frenette, É. (2024). Student engagement in a higher education course: A multidimensional scale for different course modalities. Social Sciences and Humanities Open, 9, Article 100794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100794
Imran, I., Khan, R. A., & Aslam, K. (2023). The development and validation of student engagement questionnaire. Proceedings, 37(4), 26-30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.47489/szmc.v37i4.389
Jaafar, F. M. D., Hashim, R. A., & Ariffin, T. F. T. (2012). Malaysian university student learning involvement scale (MUSLIS): Validation of a student engagement mode. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 9, 15-30. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84874127148&partnerID=40&md5=d2e6a4e0c6217b360ce56be3d1a47632
Kim, S. Y., Westine, C., Wu, T., & Maher, D. (2024). Validation of the Higher Education Student Engagement Scale in use for program evaluation. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory and Practice, 26(3), 769-793. https://doi.org/10.1177/15210251221120908
Kuh, G. D. (2009). The National Survey of Student Engagement: Conceptual and empirical Foundations. New Directions for Institutional Research (141), 5-20. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.283
Laranjeira, M., & Teixeira, M. O. (2025). Relationships between engagement, achievement and well-being: Validation of the engagement in higher education scale. Studies in Higher Education, 50(4), 756-770. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2354903
Li, S., Kwok, S. W. H., Siu, S. C. N., Chung, J. Y. S., Lam, H. C. Y., Tsang, E. Y. M., Li, K. C., Yeung, J. W. Y., & Lam, S. C. (2023). Development of a generic student engagement scale in higher education: An application on healthcare students. Nursing Open, 10(3), 1545-1555. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.1405
Marcionetti, J., & Zammitti, A. (2024). Italian Higher Education Student Engagement Scale (I-HESES): Initial validation and psychometric evidence. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 37(3), 470-494. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070.2023.2241031
Maroco, J., Maroco, A. L., Campos, J. A. D. B., & Fredricks, J. A. (2016). University student’s engagement: Development of the University Student Engagement Inventory (USEI). Psicologia: Reflexao e Critica, 29, 21.
Reeve, J., & Tseng, C. M. (2011). Agency as a fourth aspect of students' engagement during learning activities. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36(4), 257-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.05.002
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326
Sharif-Nia, H., Marôco, J., She, L., Narula, S., Ma, L., Kaveh, O., Rahmatpour, P., & Ghahrani, N. (2024). University Student Engagement Inventory: Validation in the Indian online learning context. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 57(4), 351-363. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2023.2301287
Siddiqi, A. F., Shabbir, M. S., Abbas, M., Mahmood, A., & Salman, R. (2022). Developing and testing student engagement scale for higher education students. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 14(1), 424-439. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-11-2020-0388
Sulla, F., Harrad, R., Tontodimamma, A., Limone, P., & Aquino, A. (2023). Italian validation of the Online Student Engagement Scale (OSE) in higher education. Behavioral Sciences, 13(4), Article 324. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13040324
Tadesse, T., & Gillies, R. M. (2017). Testing robustness, model fit, and measurement invariance of the Student Engagement Scale in an African university context. Australian Journal of Career Development, 26(3), 92-102. https://doi.org/10.1177/1038416217724172
Tannoubi, A., Quansah, F., Hagan, J. E., Srem-Sai, M., Bonsaksen, T., Chalghaf, N., Boussayala, G., Azaiez, C., Snani, H., & Azaiez, F. (2023). Adaptation and validation of the Arabic version of the university student engagement inventory (A-USEI) among sport and physical education students. Psych, 5(2), 320-335. https://www.mdpi.com/2624-8611/5/2/22
Tatha, O., Shimazu, A., Watanabe, K., Kawakami, N., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2024). Measuring work engagement in Thailand: Development and validation testing of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-Thai version (UWES-TH). Industrial Health, 62(3), 182-194. https://doi.org/10.2486/indhealth.2023-0017
Xu, B., Stephens, J. M., & Lee, K. (2024). Assessing student engagement in collaborative learning: development and validation of new measure in China. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 33(2), 395-405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-023-00737-x
Zhoc, K. C. H., Webster, B. J., King, R. B., Li, J. C. H., & Chung, T. S. H. (2019). Higher Education Student Engagement Scale (HESES): Development and psychometric evidence. Research in Higher Education, 60(2), 219-244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9510-6
Zilvinskis, J., Masseria, A. A., & Pike, G. R. (2017). Student engagement and student learning: Examining the convergent and discriminant validity of the revised national survey of student engagement. Research in Higher Education, 58(8), 880-903. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-017-9450-6