ONLINE SEXUAL HARASSMENT SCALE FOR YOUNG ADULTS: DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF ITS FACTOR STRUCTURE
Main Article Content
Abstract
Online sexual harassment (OSH) among young adults has attracted growing attention as more social and sexual interactions occur in digital environments. However, measurement of this phenomenon in Vietnam remains limited because of a lack of instruments suitable for this population. This study aimed to develop and validate an OSH scale for young adults. The study involved 576 young adults aged 18–25 years in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The 14-item scale demonstrated good reliability. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a four-factor structure comprising online sexualized verbal harassment, unwanted online sexual attention, online sexual coercion, and the non-consensual online dissemination of intimate content. Second-order confirmatory factor analysis provided preliminary evidence that these four dimensions could be represented by a general higher-order OSH construct. The findings provide initial evidence of the reliability and structural validity of the Vietnamese-language OSH scale, thereby offering an instrument for research on online sexual harassment among young adults in Vietnam.
Keywords
online sexual harassment, young adults, scale, Ho Chi Minh City
Article Details
References
Anderson, K. M., Macler, A., Bergenfeld, I., Quach, T. T., & Yount, K. M. (2024). The media and sexual violence among adolescents: Findings from a qualitative study of educators across Vietnam. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 53(6), 2319–2335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-024-02869-7
Barak, A. (2005). Sexual harassment on the internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439304271540
Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: A primer. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, Article 149. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149
Brown, C., & Hegarty, K. (2021). Development and validation of the TAR Scale: A measure of technology-facilitated abuse in relationships. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 3, Article 100059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100059
Buchanan, N., & Mahoney, A. (2022). Development of a scale measuring online sexual harassment: Examining gender differences and the emotional impact of sexual harassment victimization online. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 27(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12197
Childnet International. (2017). Young people’s experiences of online sexual harassment: A cross-country report from Project deSHAME.
Clancy, E. M., Klettke, B., & Hallford, D. J. (2019). The dark side of sexting—Factors predicting the dissemination of sexts. Computers in Human Behavior, 92, 266–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.023
Dunn, T. J., Baguley, T., & Brunsden, V. (2014). From alpha to omega: A practical solution to the pervasive problem of internal consistency estimation. British Journal of Psychology, 105(3), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12046
ECPAT, INTERPOL, & UNICEF. (2022). Disrupting Harm in Viet Nam [SNAPSHOT]: Evidence on online child sexual exploitation and abuse. Global Partnership to End Violence Against Children.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(4), 425–445. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1704_2
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
Gámez-Guadix, M. (2018). Sexual harassment and the internet. In B. Warf (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of the internet (Vol. 3, pp. 770–772). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473960367.n225
Gámez-Guadix, M., Almendros, C., Borrajo, E., & Calvete, E. (2015). Prevalence and association of sexting and online sexual victimization among Spanish adults. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-015-0186-9
Gámez-Guadix, M., Mateos-Pérez, E., Wachs, S., Wright, M., Martínez, J., & Íncera, D. (2022). Assessing image-based sexual abuse: Measurement, prevalence, and temporal stability of sextortion and nonconsensual sexting (“revenge porn”) among adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(5), 789–799. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12064
Guerra, C., Pinto-Cortez, C., Toro, E., Efthymiadou, E., & Quayle, E. (2021). Online sexual harassment and depression in Chilean adolescents: Variations based on gender and age of the offenders. Child Abuse & Neglect, 120, Article 105219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105219
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
Howard, M. C. (2016). A review of exploratory factor analysis decisions and overview of current practices: What we are doing and how can we improve? International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 32(1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2015.1087664
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Iroegbu, M., O’Brien, F., Muñoz, L. C., & Parsons, G. (2024). Investigating the psychological impact of cyber-sexual harassment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 39(15–16), 3424–3445. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241231615
Kaiser, H. F., & Rice, J. (1974). Little Jiffy, Mark IV. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34(1), 111–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447403400115
Martínez-Bacaicoa, J., Sorrel, M. A., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2024). Development and validation of technology-facilitated sexual violence perpetration and victimization scales among adults. Assessment, 31(8), 1580–1597. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911241229575
Mazer, D. B., & Percival, E. F. (1989). Ideology or experience? The relationships among perceptions, attitudes, and experiences of sexual harassment in university students. Sex Roles, 20(3-4), 135-147. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00287987
Montiel, I., Carbonell, E., & Pereda, N. (2016). Multiple online victimization of Spanish adolescents: Results from a community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 52, 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.12.005
Nguyen, V. L., Giang, T. T. M., Beazley, H., Nguyen, T. A. T., Tran, H. T., Truong, Q. L., & Nguyen, H. H. (2025). The prevalence and factors associated with sexting among Vietnamese adolescents: A gender-specific analysis. International Journal of Mental Health, 54(2), 154–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2024.2377843
Schenk, S. (2008). Cyber-sexual harassment: The development of the Cyber-Sexual Experiences Questionnaire. McNair Scholars Journal, 12(1), 82–91.
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research, 8(2), 23–74. https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.12784
Stark, S., Chernyshenko, O. S., Lancaster, A. R., Drasgow, F., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (2002). Toward standardized measurement of sexual harassment: Shortening the SEQ-DoD using item response theory. Military Psychology, 14(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327876MP1401_03
Barak, A. (2005). Sexual harassment on the internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 77–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439304271540
Boateng, G. O., Neilands, T. B., Frongillo, E. A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H. R., & Young, S. L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: A primer. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, Article 149. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149
Brown, C., & Hegarty, K. (2021). Development and validation of the TAR Scale: A measure of technology-facilitated abuse in relationships. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 3, Article 100059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100059
Buchanan, N., & Mahoney, A. (2022). Development of a scale measuring online sexual harassment: Examining gender differences and the emotional impact of sexual harassment victimization online. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 27(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12197
Childnet International. (2017). Young people’s experiences of online sexual harassment: A cross-country report from Project deSHAME.
Clancy, E. M., Klettke, B., & Hallford, D. J. (2019). The dark side of sexting—Factors predicting the dissemination of sexts. Computers in Human Behavior, 92, 266–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.023
Dunn, T. J., Baguley, T., & Brunsden, V. (2014). From alpha to omega: A practical solution to the pervasive problem of internal consistency estimation. British Journal of Psychology, 105(3), 399–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12046
ECPAT, INTERPOL, & UNICEF. (2022). Disrupting Harm in Viet Nam [SNAPSHOT]: Evidence on online child sexual exploitation and abuse. Global Partnership to End Violence Against Children.
Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(4), 425–445. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1704_2
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
Gámez-Guadix, M. (2018). Sexual harassment and the internet. In B. Warf (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of the internet (Vol. 3, pp. 770–772). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473960367.n225
Gámez-Guadix, M., Almendros, C., Borrajo, E., & Calvete, E. (2015). Prevalence and association of sexting and online sexual victimization among Spanish adults. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 12(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-015-0186-9
Gámez-Guadix, M., Mateos-Pérez, E., Wachs, S., Wright, M., Martínez, J., & Íncera, D. (2022). Assessing image-based sexual abuse: Measurement, prevalence, and temporal stability of sextortion and nonconsensual sexting (“revenge porn”) among adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 94(5), 789–799. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12064
Guerra, C., Pinto-Cortez, C., Toro, E., Efthymiadou, E., & Quayle, E. (2021). Online sexual harassment and depression in Chilean adolescents: Variations based on gender and age of the offenders. Child Abuse & Neglect, 120, Article 105219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105219
Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
Howard, M. C. (2016). A review of exploratory factor analysis decisions and overview of current practices: What we are doing and how can we improve? International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 32(1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2015.1087664
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Iroegbu, M., O’Brien, F., Muñoz, L. C., & Parsons, G. (2024). Investigating the psychological impact of cyber-sexual harassment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 39(15–16), 3424–3445. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241231615
Kaiser, H. F., & Rice, J. (1974). Little Jiffy, Mark IV. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 34(1), 111–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447403400115
Martínez-Bacaicoa, J., Sorrel, M. A., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2024). Development and validation of technology-facilitated sexual violence perpetration and victimization scales among adults. Assessment, 31(8), 1580–1597. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911241229575
Mazer, D. B., & Percival, E. F. (1989). Ideology or experience? The relationships among perceptions, attitudes, and experiences of sexual harassment in university students. Sex Roles, 20(3-4), 135-147. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00287987
Montiel, I., Carbonell, E., & Pereda, N. (2016). Multiple online victimization of Spanish adolescents: Results from a community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 52, 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.12.005
Nguyen, V. L., Giang, T. T. M., Beazley, H., Nguyen, T. A. T., Tran, H. T., Truong, Q. L., & Nguyen, H. H. (2025). The prevalence and factors associated with sexting among Vietnamese adolescents: A gender-specific analysis. International Journal of Mental Health, 54(2), 154–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2024.2377843
Schenk, S. (2008). Cyber-sexual harassment: The development of the Cyber-Sexual Experiences Questionnaire. McNair Scholars Journal, 12(1), 82–91.
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research, 8(2), 23–74. https://doi.org/10.23668/psycharchives.12784
Stark, S., Chernyshenko, O. S., Lancaster, A. R., Drasgow, F., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (2002). Toward standardized measurement of sexual harassment: Shortening the SEQ-DoD using item response theory. Military Psychology, 14(1), 49–72. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327876MP1401_03